Academic writing uses a more formal style than spoken or casual written English. Below are some of the more important differences. NB There is nothing grammatically wrong with the sentences marked X; the problem is one of style.

1. Avoid contractions:

• X Exports won't improve until the economy is stronger.
• Better Exports will not improve until the economy is stronger.

2. Use more formal negative forms:

X not...any	Better no
X not...much	Better little
X not...many	Better few

• X Their research didn't find any significant differences.
• Better Their research found no significant differences.
• X Not many students could use the past perfect tense.
• Better Few students could use the past perfect tense.

3. Avoid expressions such as "and so forth" and "etc."

• X This technique can be used in large classes, small classes, etc.
• Better This technique can be used in large classes, small classes, small groups, tutoring situations.

4. Avoid addressing the reader as "you".

• X You can see the results in Table 1.
• Better The results can be seen in Table 1.

5. Try to avoid using direct questions.

• X How can we lower educational costs?
• Better We now need to consider how to lower educational costs.

Exercise: Make the following sentences more formal.

1. If you fail the examination, you can't enter the university.
2. OK, what are the causes of bullying? Many possibilities exist.
3. You can clearly see the difference between these two styles.
4. The number of students has dropped in six prefectures: Shizuoka, Aichi, Yamanashi, etc.
5. The students didn't have much difficulty with the assignment.

Check your answers here.

Adapted from J.M. Swales & C.B. Feak Academic Writing for Graduate Students. The University of Michigan Press, 1994.